第7巻 第24章

Greek Βελισαρίῳ δὲ τόλμα προμηθὴς γέγονε τότε ἀρχὴν μὲν μανιώδης δόξασα εἶναι τοῖς τε ὁρῶσι καὶ ἀκούουσι πρῶτον, ἐκβᾶσα δὲ ἐς ἀρετῆς ἔργον ὑψηλόν τε καὶ δαιμονίως ὑπέρογκον.

Dewing At that time Belisarius conceived a daring and far‑seeing plan, which in the beginning indeed appeared insane to those who first saw and heard of his actions, but its outcome proved to be a splendid achievement of marvellous importance.

Greek τῶν γὰρ στρατιωτῶν ὀλίγους τινὰς φρουρᾶς ἕνεκα τῆς ἐν Πόρτῳ ἀπολιπὼν αὐτὸς ξὺν τῷ ἄλλῳ στρατῷ ἐς Ῥώμην ἦλθε, προσποιεῖσθαί τε αὐτὴν σθένει παντὶ ἤθελεν.

Dewing For he sallied forth, leaving behind only a few of his soldiers to keep guard in Portus, and went halves with the rest of his army to Rome, with the intention of trying with all ship strength to establish himself in possession of the city.

Greek ἐπεὶ δὲ οὐχ οἷός τε ἦν ὅσα καθελὼν τοῦ περιβόλου Τουτίλας ἔτυχε βραχεῖ ἀνοικοδομήσασθαι χρόνῳ, ἐποίει τάδε.

Dewing And since he was unable in a short time to rebuild all the portions of the wall which Totila had torn down, he did as follows.

Greek λίθους ἄγχιστά πη ὄντας ξυναγαγὼν ἐπ’ ἀλλήλους οὐδενὶ κόσμῳ ξυνέβαλεν, οὐδὲν τὸ παράπαν ἐντὸς ἔχοντας, ἐπεὶ οὔτε τίτανον εἶχεν οὔτε τι ἄλλο τοιοῦτον, ἀλλ’ ὅπως μόνον τὸ τῆς οἰκοδομίας σώζοιτο πρόσωπον, σκολόπων τε μέγα τι χρῆμα ἔξωθεν ἵστη.

Dewing Gathering stones which lay close by, he threw them one on top of the other, regardless of order, without putting anything at all between the stones, since he had neither lime nor anything else of the sort, but caring only that the face of the masonry should be preserved, and he set a great quantity of stakes on the outside.

Greek ἐτύγχανε δὲ καὶ τάφρους βαθείας ἀμφὶ τὸν περίβολον ὅλον ὀρύξας πρότερον, ὥσπερ μοι ἐν τοῖς ἔμπροσθεν λόγοις ἐρρήθη.

Dewing Now he had previously, as it happened, dug deep trenches around the entire circuit-wall, as stated in the previous narrative.⁠

Greek παντὸς δὲ τοῦ στρατοῦ προθυμίᾳ τῇ πάσῃ ταῦτα ἐργαζομένου πέντε καὶ εἴκοσιν ἡμερῶν ὅσα τοῦ περιβόλου καθῄρητο τῷ τρόπῳ τούτῳ τετέλεστο.

Dewing And since the whole army carried out this work with unbounded enthusiasm, in twenty-five days such parts of the fortifications as had been torn down had been finished in this manner.

Greek τῶν τε Ῥωμαίων ὅσοι ἀμφὶ τὰ ἐκείνῃ χωρία ᾤκηντο ἐνταῦθα ἠγείροντο, τῆς τε ἐν Ῥώμῃ οἰκήσεως ἐπιθυμίᾳ καὶ ὅτι τῶν ἐπιτηδείων τέως σπανίζοντες ἀφθονίαν ἐνταῦθα εὗρον, ἥνπερ Βελισάριος ποιεῖν ἴσχυσε, ναῦς ὅτι πλείστας πάντων ἐμπλησάμενος τῶν ἀναγκαίων, ἔς τε Ῥώμην διὰ τοῦ ποταμοῦ ἐσκομίσας.

Dewing And all the Romans who lived in the neighbourhood gathered in the city, both because of their desire to make their homes in Rome, and also because they had for a time been scantily supplied with provisions and they found bund there; for Belisarius had been able to bring this about by loading a great number of boats with all manner of provisions and bringing them up to Rome by the river.

Greek Ταῦτα ἐπεὶ Τουτίλας ἤκουσεν, ἄρας αὐτίκα παντὶ τῷ στρατῷ ἐπὶ Βελισάριόν τε καὶ Ῥώμην ἦλθεν, οὔπω Βελισαρίου τὰς πύλας ἐναρμόσασθαι τῷ περιβόλῳ ἰσχύσαντος.

Dewing When Totila heard this, he immediately set his whole army in motion and marched against Belisarius and Rome, before Belisarius had as yet been able to fit the gates to the wall.

Greek πάσας γὰρ διαφθείρας Τουτίλας ἔτυχεν, ἅσπερ οὐκ ἔφθη τεχνιτῶν ἀπορίᾳ Βελισάριος τεκτηνάμενος.

Dewing For it so happened that Totila had destroyed them all, and Belisarius had not up to that time succeeded in having gates built because of the lack of artisans.

Greek ἐπεὶ δὲ ὁ τῶν βαρβάρων στρατὸς ἀγχοῦ ἐγένοντο, τότε μὲν ἐνστρατοπεδευσάμενοι ηὐλίσαντο παρὰ Τίβεριν ποταμόν, ἡμέρᾳ τε τῇ ἐπιγενομένῃ ἅμα ἡλίῳ ἀνίσχοντι θυμῷ τε πολλῷ καὶ θορύβῳ ἐχόμενοι ἀμφὶ τὸ τεῖχος ᾔεσαν.

Dewing And when the barbarian army came near the city, they made camp for the moment and bivouacked on the bank of the Tiber, but on the following day at sunrise they advanced, filled with great fury and shouting as they came, to a position before the walls.

Greek Βελισάριος δὲ τῶν μὲν στρατιωτῶν τοὺς μαχιμωτάτους ἀπολεξάμενος ἐς τὴν χώραν τῶν πυλῶν ἔστησε, τοὺς δὲ λοιποὺς ἄνωθεν ἀπὸ τῶν περιβόλων ἀμύνεσθαι τοὺς ἐπιόντας πάσῃ δυνάμει ἐκέλευε.

Dewing But Belisarius had selected the most warlike of his soldiers and stationed them in the open gateways, commanding the rest to stand above and ward off the assailants from the wall with all their force.

Greek γέγονε τοίνυν καρτερὰ μάχη. οἱ γὰρ βάρβαροι τὰ μὲν πρῶτα ἐλπίδα εἶχον αὐτοβοεὶ τὴν πόλιν αἱρήσειν, τοῦ δὲ πράγματος σφίσιν ἀντιστατοῦντος, καὶ τῶν Ῥωμαίων ἰσχυρότατα ἀμυνομένων, ὀργῇ χρώμενοι τοῖς πολεμίοις ἐπέκειντο, τοῦ θυμοῦ σφᾶς παρὰ δύναμιν ἐς τὴν εὐτολμίαν ὁρμῶντος.

Dewing So a fierce battle ensued; for the barbarians, on their part, at first entertained the hope that they would capture the city at the first shout, but since the attempt proved difficult, and the Romans offered a most vigorous resistance, they gave way to rage and began to press upon the foe, their fury inspiring them to daring beyond their strength.

Greek οἵ τε Ῥωμαῖοι παρά δόξαν ἀντείχοντο, τοῦ κινδύνου, ὡς τὸ εἰκός, ἐς τὴν εὐψυχίαν ἐνάγοντος.

Dewing The Romans, meanwhile, resisted with unexpected determination, the danger naturally arousing them to bravery.

Greek γέγονεν οὖν φόνος τῶν βαρβάρων ἅτε ἀφ’ ὑψηλοῦ βαλλομένων πολύς, κόπῳ τε πολλῷ καὶ ταλαιπωρίᾳ ἑκάτεροι εἴχοντο καὶ ἡ μάχη πρωῒ ἀρξαμένη ἐτελεύτα ἐς νύκτα.

Dewing Consequently a great slaughter of the barbarians took place, and both armies were becoming very weary and distressed; and the battle, which had begun in the morning, ended at night.

Greek ἔπειτα οἱ μὲν βάρβαροι ἐν τοῖς στρατοπέδοις γενόμενοι ἐνυκτέρευσαν, τῶν ἐν σφίσι τραυματιῶν ἐπιμελούμενοι, Ῥωμαίων δὲ οἱ μὲν ἄλλοι ἐν τῷ περιβόλῳ φυλακὴν εἶχον, οἱ δὲ ἀνδρίας πέρι μάλιστα πάντων εὖ ἥκοντες ἐν περιτροπῇ τὰς τῶν πυλῶν χώρας ἐφύλασσον, τριβόλους ἔμπροσθεν πολλοὺς θέμενοι, ὅπως μὴ ἐξ ἐπιδρομῆς οἱ πολέμιοι ἐπὶ σφᾶς ἴωσιν.

Dewing Thereupon the barbarians repaired to their camps and passed the night there, caring for their wounded; as for the Romans, some were keeping guard on the wall, while others, who were the men most conspicuous of all for their bravery, were guarding the open gateways in relays, having placed triboli in great numbers in front of them, so that the enemy might not make a surprise attack upon them.

Greek Οἱ δὲ τρίβολοι τοιοίδε εἰσί. σκολόπων τεττάρων ἰσομήκων μάλιστα τὰ ὄπισθε πρὸς ἄλληλα ἐναρμοσάμενοι τριγώνου σχῆμα τὰς αὐτῶν εὐθείας πανταχόθεν ἐργάζονται, καὶ αὐτοὺς ἐς τὴν γῆν ὅπου παρατύχῃ ῥίπτουσι.

Dewing Now these triboli⁠ are of the following sort. Four spikes of equal length are fastened together at their butts in such a manner that their points form the outline of a triangle on every side.

Greek ταύτῃ τε τῶν σκολόπων οἱ μὲν τρεῖς ἐς τὸ ἔδαφος ἰσχυρότατα ἑστήκασι πάντες, ὁ δὲ λειπόμενος ἀνέχων μόνος ἐμπόδιον ἀνδράσι τε καὶ ἵπποις ἐς ἀεὶ γίγνεται.

Dewing These they throw at random upon the ground, and because of their form three of the spikes all plant themselves very firmly upon the ground, while the remaining one stands up alone and always proves an obstacle for both men and horses.

Greek ὁσάκις δέ τις τοῦτον δὴ κυλίνδει τὸν τρίβολον, ὁ μὲν τέως ἐκ τῶν σκολόπων τὴν τοῦ ἀέρος ὄρθιον κληρωσάμενος χώραν ἐς τὸ ἔδαφος ἕστηκεν, ἄλλος δὲ ἀντ’ αὐτοῦ γιγνόμενος ἄνω τοῖς ἐπιέναι βουλομένοις ἐμπόδιόν ἐστιν. οἱ μὲν τρίβολοι τοιοίδε εἰσίν. ἑκάτεροι δὲ οὕτω μετὰ τὴν μάχην ηὐλίσαντο.

Dewing And as often as anybody rolls over one of these triboli, the spike which hitherto has chanced to stand up straight in the air becomes planted on the ground, but another one takes its place above, as an obstacle to those who wish to advance in the attack. Such are the triboli. So both sides bivouacked thus after the battle.

Greek Τῇ δὲ ὑστεραίᾳ Τουτίλας αὖθις παντὶ τῷ στρατῷ τειχομαχεῖν ἔγνω, οἱ δὲ Ῥωμαῖοι τρόπῳ τῷ εἰρημένῳ ἠμύνοντο. καθυπέρτεροί τε τῇ ξυμβολῇ γεγενημένοι ἐπεξελθεῖν τοῖς πολεμίοις ἐθάρσησαν.

Dewing On the following day Totila decided to storm the wall again with his whole army, and the Romans proceeded to ward them off in the manner described; and gaining the upper hand in the engagement, they plucked up courage to make a sally against their enemy.

Greek καὶ τῶν βαρβάρων ὑποχωρούντων διώκοντες τῶν Ῥωμαίων τινὲς πόρρω που τοῦ περιβόλου ἐγένοντο. οὓς δὴ κυκλώσεσθαι οἱ βάρβαροι ἔμελλον, ὡς μὴ ἀναστρέφειν ἐς τὴν πόλιν δυνατοὶ εἶεν. ἀλλὰ Βελισάριος ʽκατενόησε γὰρ τὰ ποιούμενἀ τῶν ἀμφ’ αὑτὸν πολλοὺς ἐνταῦθα στείλας διασώσασθαι τοὺς ἄνδρας ἴσχυσεν.

Dewing And as the barbarians retreated, some of the Romans, in pursuing them, went to a considerable distance from the fortifications. These barbarians were on the point of surrounding, so that they might be unable to return to the city. But Belisarius, noting what was taking place, sent a large number of his men to that point and thus succeeded in rescuing the force.

Greek οὕτω τε ἀποκρουσθέντες οἱ βάρβαροι ἀνεχώρησαν, πολλοὺς μὲν ἀποβεβληκότες τῶν ἐν σφίσι μαχίμων, πλείστους δὲ τραυματίας ἐς τὸ στρατόπεδον ἐπαγόμενοι.

Dewing After being repulsed in this way the barbarians withdrew, having lost many of their able fighting men, and bringing with them a great number of wounded to their camp.

Greek ἐνταῦθά τε ἡσυχῆ ἔμενον, τά τε τραύματα θεραπεύοντες καὶ τῶν ὅπλων ἐπιμελούμενοι ʽπολλὰ γὰρ σφίσι διέφθαρτο ἤδἠ καὶ τὰ ἄλλα ἐν παρασκευῇ πάσῃ ποιούμενοι. Ἡμέραις δὲ πολλαῖς ὕστερον ἐπὶ τὸν περίβολον ὡς τειχομαχήσοντες ᾔεσαν.

Dewing There they remained quiet, caring for their wounds and attending to their arms, many of which had now been destroyed, and putting everything else in readiness. Many days later they again advanced against the wall with the purpose of storming it,

Greek Ῥωμαῖοι δὲ σφίσιν ὑπαντιάσαντες ἐς χεῖρας ἦλθον. τύχῃ τέ τινι ὁ τὸ Τουτίλα σημεῖον φέρων καιρίαν πληγεὶς αὐτός τε ἐκ τοῦ ἵππου ἐκπίπτει καὶ τὸ σημεῖον ἐς τὴν γῆν ἔρριψε.

Dewing But the Romans came out to meet them and joined battle. And by some chance the man who was bearing the standard of Totila received a mortal wound and not only fell from his horse himself, but also threw the standard to the ground.

Greek καὶ Ῥωμαίων μὲν ὅσοι ἐς τὰ πρῶτα ἐμάχοντο, ὥρμησαν ὥστε τὸ σημεῖον καὶ τὸν νεκρὸν ἁρπασόμενοι. φθάσαντες δὲ τῶν βαρβάρων οἱ εὐτολμότατοι τό τε σημεῖον ἁρπάζουσι καὶ τοῦ νεκροῦ χεῖρα τὴν λαιὰν ἀποτεμόντες ξὺν αὑτοῖς ἔλαβον.

Dewing Whereupon those of the Romans who were fighting at the front made a rush with the intention of seizing the standard and the corpse. But the most courageous of the barbarians got there first, seized the standard, and also cut off the left hand of the corpse and took it with them.

Greek ψέλλιον γὰρ χρυσοῦν ἐπὶ ταύτης ὁ πεπτωκὼς φορῶν ἔτυχε λόγου ἄξιον, ᾧπερ ἐναβρύνεσθαι τοὺς ἐναντίους ἥκιστα ἤθελον, φεύγοντες δηλονότι τὴν ἀπὸ τοῦ ἔργου αἰσχύνην.

Dewing For the fallen man was wearing upon this hand a notable bracelet of gold, over which they were quite unwilling that their opponents should exult, and they sought thus to avoid the disgrace which its loss would involve.

Greek καὶ ὁ μὲν τῶν βαρβάρων στρατὸς ἐς ὑπαγωγὴν ἐτράποντο οὐδενὶ κόσμῳ, Ῥωμαῖοι δὲ τὸ μὲν ἄλλο τοῦ νεκροῦ σῶμα ἐσκύλευσαν, τοὺς δὲ πολεμίους ἐπὶ πλεῖστον διώκοντες πολλοὺς ἔκτειναν, ἔς τε τὴν πόλιν κακῶν παντάπασιν ἀπαθεῖς ἦλθον.

Dewing Then the barbarian army was turned to retreat in complete disorder, while the Romans despoiled what was left of the corpse, and in pursuing the enemy to a great distance killed many of them, and then returned to the city without the slightest loss.

Greek Τότε δὲ ὅσοι ἐν Γότθοις λόγιμοι ἦσαν Τουτίλᾳ προσελθόντες ἐλοιδοροῦντό τε καὶ ἀνέδην αὐτῷ τὴν ἀβουλίαν ὠνείδιζον, ὅτι δὴ Ῥώμην ἑλὼν οὔτε ξύμπασαν ἐς ἔδαφος καθεῖλεν, ὅπως μηκέτι τοῖς πολεμίοις καταληπτὴ εἴη, οὔτε αὐτὸς ἔσχεν, ἀλλ’ ὅπερ πόνῳ τε καὶ χρόνῳ πολλῷ αὐτοῖς ἐργασθὲν ἔτυχε, τοῦτο λόγῳ αὐτὸς οὐδενὶ διαφθείρειεν.

Dewing Then all the notable Goths came to Totila and inveighed against him and reproached him mercilessly for his lack of wisdom; after capturing Rome, they said, he had neither levelled the whole city to the ground so that it might be no longer possible for the enemy to take possession of it, nor had himself held it, but that which they had accomplished by a great expenditure of both labour and time, this he himself had undone in an altogether unreasonable manner.

Greek οὕτω τοῖς ἀνθρώποις ἐμπέφυκε πρὸς τῶν πραγμάτων τὰς ἀποβάσεις ἀεὶ τὴν γνώμην ῥυθμίζειν καὶ τὴν διάνοιαν τῷ τῆς τύχης ῥεύματι προσχωρεῖν, ἀγχιστρόφους τε ἀπ’ αὐτοῦ τὰς μεταστάσεις ποιεῖσθαι τῆς δόξης.

Dewing Thus it is by nature inbred in men to accommodate their judgment in every case to the outcome of events and to allow their mind to be dominated by the current of fortune, and to make their changes of opinion instantly as a result of this.

Greek διὸ δὴ καὶ Γότθοι εὐημεροῦντα μὲν τοῖς ἐγχειρήμασι Τουτίλαν ἐτεθήπεσαν ἴσα θεῷ, ἄμαχόν τινα καὶ ἀήττητον ἀποκαλοῦντες, ἡνίκα πόλεων τῶν ἁλισκομένων ἐκ μοίρας τινὸς τὰ τείχη διαφθείρειν εἴα, σφαλέντι δέ, ὥσπερ ἐρρήθη, λοιδορεῖσθαι οὐκ ἀπηξίουν τῶν ἔναγχος σφίσιν ἀμφ’ αὐτὸν εἰρημένων ἀμνημονοῦντες, ἀπ’ ἐναντίας τε αὐτῶν οὐδεμιᾷ ὀκνήσει ἰόντες.

Dewing It was indeed for this reason that while Totila was succeeding in his undertakings, the Goths had reverenced him equally with God, calling him an unvanquished and invincible leader, at the time when he allowed them to destroy only a portion of the defences of captured cities, but when he met with the reverse above mentioned, they did not feel it improper to inveigh against him, unmindful of what they had recently said about to have, and going contrary to these declarations without the least hesitation.

Greek ἀλλὰ ταῦτα μὲν καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα οὐχ οἷόν τέ ἐστι μὴ οὐχὶ τοῖς ἀνθρώποις ἐς ἀεὶ ἁμαρτάνεσθαι, ἐπεὶ καὶ φύσει γίγνεσθαι εἴωθε.

Dewing But these errors of judgment and others like them must inevitably be constantly committed by men, since they are due to human nature.

Greek Τουτίλας δὲ καὶ οἱ βάρβαροι λύσαντες τὴν προσεδρείαν ἐς Τίβουριν πόλιν ἀφίκοντο, πάσας σχεδόν τι τὰς τοῦ Τιβέριδος γεφύρας διελόντες, ὅπως μὴ Ῥωμαῖοι εὐπετῶς σφίσιν ἐπιέναι οἷοί τε ὦσι.

Dewing So Totila and his barbarians broke up the siege and went to the city of Tibur, having torn down practically all the bridges over the Tiber, that it might not be easy for the Romans to make an attack upon them.

Greek γέφυραν μέντοι μίαν, ἣ Μολιβίου ἐπώνυμός ἐστι, διαφθεῖραι οὐδαμῆ ἴσχυσαν, ἐπεὶ ἄγχιστα τῆς πόλεως ἐτύγχανεν οὖσα. τό τε ἐν Τιβούρει φρούριον ἀνοικοδομήσασθαι σθένει παντὶ ἔγνωσαν·

Dewing One bridge, however, which bears the name of Mulvius, they were quite unable to destroy, since it was very close to the city. And they decided to rebuild the fortress in Tibur with all their might; for they had dismantled it previously;

Greek καθελόντες γὰρ αὐτὸ πρότερον ἔτυχον· τά τε χρήματα ἐνταῦθα καταθέμενοι ἅπαντα ἡσυχῆ ἔμενον.

Dewing and they deposited there all their possessions and remained quiet.

Greek καὶ Βελισάριος ἀδεέστερον ἤδη τὰς πύλας τοῦ Ῥώμης περιβόλου πανταχόθι ἐφαρμοσάμενος σιδήρῳ τε αὐτὰς περιβαλὼν αὖθις βασιλεῖ τὰς κλεῖς ἔπεμψε. καὶ ὁ χειμὼν ἔληγε, καὶ τὸ δωδέκατον ἔτος ἐτελεύτα τῷ πολέμῳ τῷδε, ὃν Προκόπιος ξυνέγραψεν.

Dewing As for Belisarius, having now less cause for fear, he fitted gates to the circuit-wall of Rome on every side, bound them with iron, and once more sent the keys to the emperor. And the winter drew to a close, and the twelfth year ended in this war, the history of which Procopius has written. The Loeb Editor's Notes: 1 Sicily. ❦ 2 Literally "upturned hands." ❦ 3a 3b Presumably solidi aurei, at this time worth about 12s. 7d. or $3.06 each. Thayer's Note: Assuming the above equivalence means anything at all, $3.06 in 1928 when this book was published was about the same as $46 now (2020), according to this U. S. Inflation Calculator. In turn, that means that a "bushel", or rather a medimnus of wheat — however much that was, there's a great deal of uncertainty — was selling for about $320, and the ox for $2300. Protein for protein, I would advise you to buy the ox if you could, if you have a big family or can pool with others: the price is in the same range as the going price in the United States today (assuming that ox to weigh about as much as a 21c beef steer, which is unlikely). If you're just feeding yourself and one or two other people though, beef doesn't keep very long unless you have a lot of salt on hand: go for the wheat. And then on the other hand, the levels of income were much lower back then; face it, you're going to starve. ❦ 4 To the north. ❦ 5 The Strait of Otranto; Belisarius would be hastening southward and so would leave them unmolested. ❦ 6 Modern Canosa. ❦ 7 Messina. Thayer's Note: The ancient Scylla is not Messina in Sicily, but is a different town on the mainland side of the strait, now Scilla. The note should read "The Strait of Messina." ❦ 8 Modern Cervaro. ❦ 9 The Basilica commenced by Constantine, on the site of St. Peter's. ❦ 10 Cf. Book IV.xxvii.38, note. ❦ 11 Cf. Book IV.xxvii.38, note. ❦ 12 Cf. chap. i.32. ❦ 13 Perhaps Mt. Algidus (modern Ceraso), though this lies east, not west, of Rome and is remote from Portus. ❦ 14 Modern Gargano. ❦ 15 Cf. chap. xii.20. ❦ 16 Cf. Book V.xiv.15. ❦ 17 Caltrops; used, for example, at Bannockburn. Thayer's Note: See the article Tribulus in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. Thayer's Note: a So the translator, for the Greek genitive Βέβωνος, which might equally stand for Bebo(n), Bevo(n), or Vebo(n). A footnote by the same translator would have been useful. The place is very likely the Bruttian town of Vibo (Vibo Valentia), about 75 km in a straight line from Rhegium (Reggio), and important enough today to be the capital of an Italian province. ◂ previous next ▸ Images with borders lead to more information. The thicker the border, the more information. (Details here.) UP TO: Gothic Wars Ancient Military History Military History Home Procopius Greek & Latin Texts LacusCurtius A page or image on this site is in the public domain ONLY if its URL has a total of one *asterisk. If the URL has two **asterisks, the item is copyright someone else, and used by permission or fair use. If the URL has none the item is © Bill Thayer. See my copyright page for details and contact information. Page updated: 14 Sep 20 Accessibility